Alvin Toffler, in his monumental work, 'The Third Wave' has postulated has there have been only three major transformations in the 50,000 years of human history. The first major transformation was in the neolithic era, in about 10,000 BC, when the human society invented agriculture and society changed from groups of wandering hunter-gatherers to settlers, which was the starting point of architecture. The second change occurred almost 12,000 years afterwards, in about 1750 AD, which was the starting phase of the Industrial Revolution. The third change is happening right now, all around us, triggered by the revolution in computing, which started about 1960 AD, with the advent of personal computers.
It is significant that out of the many epoch-making events in human history, Toffler picked only these three events as they are the only events which dramatically altered the entire set of relationships in the human society. Transformation from the hunter-gatherer phase to agriculture did not only made available a stable supply of food, it led to a distinct hierarchy of in the society with the protectors of stability, the Kings, noblemen and the military at top, landowners, businessmen and professionals in the middle and the craftsmen, agricultural workers and slaves at the bottom of the social pyramid.
As the human society became stable, the settlements started dotting the landscape, initially as groups of houses huddled together to form villages in the center of farmlands, some of them grew into cities as the centers of power and marketplaces. The individual houses eventually became important identities of the social and economic status of the owner, starting from the humble huts of the slaves and farmers to the large houses of landlords and businessmen culminating in the large-scale monumental palaces of the lords and kings. Dominated by the feudal lords and kings, this era came to be called as the Feudal Era.
Religion as a unifying theme for all human settlements, was institutionalized in the feudal era. Prior to this era, religious sentiments and themes have been there since the inception of the human civilization, but prior to the feudal era, religion was restricted to distinct groups, and its manifestation was limited to the rites and rituals of a specific settlement or group of people in a specific geographical area. The feudal era slowly brought together a consolidation of power, leading to large nation-states like the Roman empire, which many a times transcended geographical regions, a multitude of cultural groups with multiple languages and religious practices. Along with the political power, spread of a unified religion thus became imperative for the political stability of the nation-state.
Architecture in the Feudal Era
Architecture, it is said, is the ultimate status symbol of a society as it incorporates the multitude of facets of the society in which it originates. Architecture needs resources to build, so it follows that those who provide these resources would decide the scope and nature of the construction. In the feudal society, the entire resources of the land were concentrated in the hands of the lords and the kings, so they were the decision makers, and the obvious building types were the palaces and the religious places.
Divine Sanction
In fact the religious places at times acquired more status than the palaces, but that was solely due to the fact that the authority of the lords was based on the idea of divine sanction, i. e., the idea that their position in society was ordained by the God. It was important for the feudal lords to perpetrate this belief, as the stability of their rule was dependent on universal acceptance of this myth. It is no wonder, therefore, that all the resources of the state were utilized to build the religious places, and the best of the materials and technology was employed in the construction of these buildings.
Creation of Monuments
The idea was to create monuments as a symbol of divine power and the same principles followed the construction of palaces. If we look at the treatises on architecture in this era, the emphasis is on scale and proportion, symmetry and order, grandeur and aesthetics. As architecture was seen as a monument, visual characteristics of buildings acquired the highest value, irrespective of the fact that the basic tenets prescribed by Vitruvius are Firmatis, Utilitas and Venustatis (Durability, Utility and Beauty).
Buildings for Education and Leisure
The feudal society in Europe also supported the construction of other kinds of buildings, like educational institutions and recreational places like theaters. But these were solely for the use of the lords and their families and not for the common public. The designs of these buildings therefore followed the same norms as for the palaces and the churches, and the detailing and ornamentation of these structures is also on the same lines.
Industrial Revolution-Transition in Economy
Industrial revolution marked a transition in that it changed this socio-political order totally and irrevocably. Though it started as change in the manufacturing processes by use of machines instead human or animal labour, it ended up re-structuring the entire economical order in the society. The large-scale manufacturing made capitalists richer than the erstwhile lords, and the societal relationships changed from being based on birth to one based on the wealth. In one way this was a welcome change, as it gave the new industrialists an opportunity to climb the social ladder and be a part of the social elite.
Background
Of course, this was not a sudden transformation as might be suggested by the word 'revolution'. A series of events preceded and facilitated this transformation. European traders sought new trade routes by sea after the loss of Constantinople (Istanbul) leading to many voyages all over the world, and new discoveries and establishment of colonies. This increased the knowledge base of the society in various fields and also enlarged the scope of international trade. Many European nations established their colonies in the underdeveloped areas of the world, which had huge natural resources which could be exploited for the large-scale manufacturing processes.
Intellectual Traditions
Parallel to these events, in Europe, the intellectual tradition of renaissance continued with development in physics, chemistry and mathematics and many other fields. All this culminated in the dramatic change in the process of manufacturing and invention of new products like steel, cement, plate glass, gas lighting and paper. The first three made major changes in building construction and technology, gas lighting made night-life possible for the city and large-scale production of paper made printing cheaper and made publication of newspapers possible.
Effects on society-Mass urbanisation
The industries which provided employment opportunities to a large section of people were all concentrated in the cities, resulting in a large movement of people from rural areas to urban centres, making villages deserted and the towns overcrowded, with the large immigrant population living in makeshift and unhygienic settlements.
Harsh Living Conditions
The working conditions in the industries were also harsh. Workers were exposed to injury without any safety provisions, child labor was used as it was cheaper, and the long working hours made the life of all workers miserable. Though the industrial workers were better off than the farm workers in terms of sustained wages and livelihood, it does not follow that the industrial revolution brought in overall rise in living standards of the entire society immediately. The condition of the working class in the first phase of industrialization was no better than the slums in Indian cities today. People lived in crude makeshift shanties, grouped together with narrow alleyways. The density of population was very high, but there were no sanitary facilities, and diseases spread through contaminated water supply.
Survival at the cost of privacy
The only thing these places were free of was the famines, as the cities gave employment to everyone, but people died due to diseases spreading through the cramped living and working conditions. the cramped urban settlements in the city took away the privacy and personal dignity of rural life. However, the cities also gave opportunities for education and healthcare- facilities lacking sorely in the rural areas and made survival and better future attainable.
Distinction based on wealth
The industrial revolution did not bring about equality in the society, but its major contribution is that it changed the basis of inequality in the society. Feudal society made the birth as the major distinction which was impossible to change, while industrial society made wealth as the basis, which made it possible for people to change their class. Of course, it was still a long way for the universal acceptance of the equality amongst all human beings, but at least it made the status based on birth redundant.
Social theories
Capitalism and Communism
There were many intellectuals who welcomed the industrial revolution for its practical use of scientific applications and innovations. They argued that industrialization made the lot of the common man better, as really was the case in its later phases, and made a case for Capitalism, with the welfare state as an ideal form of social structure. The industrial society is based on the market, and gives opportunity of growth and prosperity to every individual in the society, irrespective of race, religion or social position. Capitalism, they argued, was responsible for the liberation of the mankind from the rigid social structure of the feudal period, and thus should be welcomed for its positive role in the society.
Marx, who promulgated the theory of ‘Communism’ accepted that Capitalism was an improvement over the feudal society, but disagreed with the premise that industrialization was beneficial to the entire society. The major problem, he argued, was not with industrialization but with its resultant polarization of society into the rich moneyed class who owned the means of production on one hand and the much larger section of population who were workers on the other.
The Capitalist society, he argued, was neither just, nor it gave equality to all, as the workers were entirely as the mercy of the industrialists, and though they were responsible for creation of the wealth, received only a minor share of the profits. Marx postulated that the inherent contrast in the lifestyle of these two classes, brought about by exploitation of the working class by the capitalists, will bring about a revolution, and the society shall eventually progress towards socialism and communism – an ideal version of society according to Marx, based on equality of all mankind. The premise of equality of mankind in Socialism and Communism, had a major influence on the theories of architectural design of this period.
Romanticism
A vastly different view of the industrial revolution and its effects of society led to theories of romanticism. The disruption of the social fabric due to the industrial revolution was seen as a social evil by many thinkers, calling for a ‘back to nature’ philosophy. The proponents of this movement named ‘Romanticism’ were poets and writers like William Wordsworth, John Keats, Byron and Shelley.
The movement criticized the industrial society, called the large factories and their machinery "monstrous" in comparison with the traditional methods of work which was considered closer to "nature" and natural processes, and stressed the importance of ‘nature’ in art and language, in contrast to machines and factories.
This movement glorified the rural traditions and culture, and the unspoiled & serene landscape of the rural settlements, and praised the virtues of traditional crafts. The Arts & crafts movement in architecture, which stressed the importance of traditional arts & craft, owes its origin to this Romanticism movement in literature.
Summary
The industrial revolution was responsible for dramatic change not only in the manufacturing of goods, but in the entire social structure, in making wealth the center of power, instead of birth. It was also responsible for the large-scale urbanization, leading to the problems of unhygienic and cramped human settlements and led to a debate on planned urban settlements. But most importantly, it shifted the focus of architecture from monuments to buildings of everyday use. Eventually this led to new theories of architecture and made creation of conducive environment for the end user as the main purpose of architectural design. Though the industrial revolution is also responsible for invention of new materials like cement, steel glass and cement, it was not the materials but the change in the focus of architectural design that made modern architecture possible, and changed the face of the human settlements.
It is significant that out of the many epoch-making events in human history, Toffler picked only these three events as they are the only events which dramatically altered the entire set of relationships in the human society. Transformation from the hunter-gatherer phase to agriculture did not only made available a stable supply of food, it led to a distinct hierarchy of in the society with the protectors of stability, the Kings, noblemen and the military at top, landowners, businessmen and professionals in the middle and the craftsmen, agricultural workers and slaves at the bottom of the social pyramid.
As the human society became stable, the settlements started dotting the landscape, initially as groups of houses huddled together to form villages in the center of farmlands, some of them grew into cities as the centers of power and marketplaces. The individual houses eventually became important identities of the social and economic status of the owner, starting from the humble huts of the slaves and farmers to the large houses of landlords and businessmen culminating in the large-scale monumental palaces of the lords and kings. Dominated by the feudal lords and kings, this era came to be called as the Feudal Era.
Religion as a unifying theme for all human settlements, was institutionalized in the feudal era. Prior to this era, religious sentiments and themes have been there since the inception of the human civilization, but prior to the feudal era, religion was restricted to distinct groups, and its manifestation was limited to the rites and rituals of a specific settlement or group of people in a specific geographical area. The feudal era slowly brought together a consolidation of power, leading to large nation-states like the Roman empire, which many a times transcended geographical regions, a multitude of cultural groups with multiple languages and religious practices. Along with the political power, spread of a unified religion thus became imperative for the political stability of the nation-state.
Architecture in the Feudal Era
Architecture, it is said, is the ultimate status symbol of a society as it incorporates the multitude of facets of the society in which it originates. Architecture needs resources to build, so it follows that those who provide these resources would decide the scope and nature of the construction. In the feudal society, the entire resources of the land were concentrated in the hands of the lords and the kings, so they were the decision makers, and the obvious building types were the palaces and the religious places.
Divine Sanction
In fact the religious places at times acquired more status than the palaces, but that was solely due to the fact that the authority of the lords was based on the idea of divine sanction, i. e., the idea that their position in society was ordained by the God. It was important for the feudal lords to perpetrate this belief, as the stability of their rule was dependent on universal acceptance of this myth. It is no wonder, therefore, that all the resources of the state were utilized to build the religious places, and the best of the materials and technology was employed in the construction of these buildings.
Creation of Monuments
The idea was to create monuments as a symbol of divine power and the same principles followed the construction of palaces. If we look at the treatises on architecture in this era, the emphasis is on scale and proportion, symmetry and order, grandeur and aesthetics. As architecture was seen as a monument, visual characteristics of buildings acquired the highest value, irrespective of the fact that the basic tenets prescribed by Vitruvius are Firmatis, Utilitas and Venustatis (Durability, Utility and Beauty).
Buildings for Education and Leisure
The feudal society in Europe also supported the construction of other kinds of buildings, like educational institutions and recreational places like theaters. But these were solely for the use of the lords and their families and not for the common public. The designs of these buildings therefore followed the same norms as for the palaces and the churches, and the detailing and ornamentation of these structures is also on the same lines.
Industrial Revolution-Transition in Economy
Industrial revolution marked a transition in that it changed this socio-political order totally and irrevocably. Though it started as change in the manufacturing processes by use of machines instead human or animal labour, it ended up re-structuring the entire economical order in the society. The large-scale manufacturing made capitalists richer than the erstwhile lords, and the societal relationships changed from being based on birth to one based on the wealth. In one way this was a welcome change, as it gave the new industrialists an opportunity to climb the social ladder and be a part of the social elite.
Background
Of course, this was not a sudden transformation as might be suggested by the word 'revolution'. A series of events preceded and facilitated this transformation. European traders sought new trade routes by sea after the loss of Constantinople (Istanbul) leading to many voyages all over the world, and new discoveries and establishment of colonies. This increased the knowledge base of the society in various fields and also enlarged the scope of international trade. Many European nations established their colonies in the underdeveloped areas of the world, which had huge natural resources which could be exploited for the large-scale manufacturing processes.
Intellectual Traditions
Parallel to these events, in Europe, the intellectual tradition of renaissance continued with development in physics, chemistry and mathematics and many other fields. All this culminated in the dramatic change in the process of manufacturing and invention of new products like steel, cement, plate glass, gas lighting and paper. The first three made major changes in building construction and technology, gas lighting made night-life possible for the city and large-scale production of paper made printing cheaper and made publication of newspapers possible.
Effects on society-Mass urbanisation
The industries which provided employment opportunities to a large section of people were all concentrated in the cities, resulting in a large movement of people from rural areas to urban centres, making villages deserted and the towns overcrowded, with the large immigrant population living in makeshift and unhygienic settlements.
Harsh Living Conditions
The working conditions in the industries were also harsh. Workers were exposed to injury without any safety provisions, child labor was used as it was cheaper, and the long working hours made the life of all workers miserable. Though the industrial workers were better off than the farm workers in terms of sustained wages and livelihood, it does not follow that the industrial revolution brought in overall rise in living standards of the entire society immediately. The condition of the working class in the first phase of industrialization was no better than the slums in Indian cities today. People lived in crude makeshift shanties, grouped together with narrow alleyways. The density of population was very high, but there were no sanitary facilities, and diseases spread through contaminated water supply.
Survival at the cost of privacy
The only thing these places were free of was the famines, as the cities gave employment to everyone, but people died due to diseases spreading through the cramped living and working conditions. the cramped urban settlements in the city took away the privacy and personal dignity of rural life. However, the cities also gave opportunities for education and healthcare- facilities lacking sorely in the rural areas and made survival and better future attainable.
Distinction based on wealth
The industrial revolution did not bring about equality in the society, but its major contribution is that it changed the basis of inequality in the society. Feudal society made the birth as the major distinction which was impossible to change, while industrial society made wealth as the basis, which made it possible for people to change their class. Of course, it was still a long way for the universal acceptance of the equality amongst all human beings, but at least it made the status based on birth redundant.
Social theories
Capitalism and Communism
There were many intellectuals who welcomed the industrial revolution for its practical use of scientific applications and innovations. They argued that industrialization made the lot of the common man better, as really was the case in its later phases, and made a case for Capitalism, with the welfare state as an ideal form of social structure. The industrial society is based on the market, and gives opportunity of growth and prosperity to every individual in the society, irrespective of race, religion or social position. Capitalism, they argued, was responsible for the liberation of the mankind from the rigid social structure of the feudal period, and thus should be welcomed for its positive role in the society.
Marx, who promulgated the theory of ‘Communism’ accepted that Capitalism was an improvement over the feudal society, but disagreed with the premise that industrialization was beneficial to the entire society. The major problem, he argued, was not with industrialization but with its resultant polarization of society into the rich moneyed class who owned the means of production on one hand and the much larger section of population who were workers on the other.
The Capitalist society, he argued, was neither just, nor it gave equality to all, as the workers were entirely as the mercy of the industrialists, and though they were responsible for creation of the wealth, received only a minor share of the profits. Marx postulated that the inherent contrast in the lifestyle of these two classes, brought about by exploitation of the working class by the capitalists, will bring about a revolution, and the society shall eventually progress towards socialism and communism – an ideal version of society according to Marx, based on equality of all mankind. The premise of equality of mankind in Socialism and Communism, had a major influence on the theories of architectural design of this period.
Romanticism
A vastly different view of the industrial revolution and its effects of society led to theories of romanticism. The disruption of the social fabric due to the industrial revolution was seen as a social evil by many thinkers, calling for a ‘back to nature’ philosophy. The proponents of this movement named ‘Romanticism’ were poets and writers like William Wordsworth, John Keats, Byron and Shelley.
The movement criticized the industrial society, called the large factories and their machinery "monstrous" in comparison with the traditional methods of work which was considered closer to "nature" and natural processes, and stressed the importance of ‘nature’ in art and language, in contrast to machines and factories.
This movement glorified the rural traditions and culture, and the unspoiled & serene landscape of the rural settlements, and praised the virtues of traditional crafts. The Arts & crafts movement in architecture, which stressed the importance of traditional arts & craft, owes its origin to this Romanticism movement in literature.
Summary
The industrial revolution was responsible for dramatic change not only in the manufacturing of goods, but in the entire social structure, in making wealth the center of power, instead of birth. It was also responsible for the large-scale urbanization, leading to the problems of unhygienic and cramped human settlements and led to a debate on planned urban settlements. But most importantly, it shifted the focus of architecture from monuments to buildings of everyday use. Eventually this led to new theories of architecture and made creation of conducive environment for the end user as the main purpose of architectural design. Though the industrial revolution is also responsible for invention of new materials like cement, steel glass and cement, it was not the materials but the change in the focus of architectural design that made modern architecture possible, and changed the face of the human settlements.
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