While the literary world was centered on the new social order brought in by the industrial revolution, architectural theoreticians were engaged in the debates about the response of architectural design to the new phenomena. Though the classical traditions were in vogue and used for most of the public buildings, there were a few who argued that a new style of architecture was the need of the hour to match the requirements of the new age; historical examples were not appropriate for the new building materials & technology, and the functional requirement of the new building types.
One of the first of such thinkers was Viollet-le-Duc
who postulated that each material has an ideal from and this form should
dictate the design of the buildings. He called for studying the styles of the
past and adapting them in a rational manner, taking into account both structure
and design. He wrote extensively about the new style of architecture needed for
the new era which would based on the capabilities of the new materials like
cement and steel, and proposed many innovative designs for new kind of steel
trusses. He also stressed the need for new forms of structure based on the
organic forms in nature, like the leaves and animal skeletons. Many of his
principles, including the emphasis on using the materials honestly and
reflecting the rationale of the construction in its visual appearance
eventually became the agenda for modern architecture.
But the time was not yet ripe for a totally
different kind of architecture. Architects were looking for a new form of
architecture, but they were still thinking in terms of a new visual style –
Violet le Duc’s writings led designers to the use of new materials in their
original state, like the new entrance to the Paris Metro, where the lightweight
glass canopy with its metal frame was in stark
contrast with the heavy classical detailing of stone. But this is an
exceptional example. Inspiration of form from nature changed only the detailing
of ornamentation and many other minor features of the structure, it did not led
to the overall change in the architectural form, as the search for a new style
stopped at the external visual appearance. The Sagrada Familia by Antoni Gaudi
is a classic example of the new architectural style, which changed only the
external appearance of the church, but in its overall form, the church was not
much different from the Gothic cathedrals of the earlier period.
In both of these examples, the inspiration
for architectural form was derived from ‘Art Nouveau’, the new movement in art, which had originally
emerged as a style of painting. Art Nouveau had its inspiration from nature, its
flowing curves and asymmetrical forms. This was quite distinct from the
classical art form, and in this context, Art Nouveau had affinity with the
pre-Raphaelites, who advocated natural forms in art in contrast with the strict
symmetrical and idealized depiction of renaissance paintings after Raphael.
The freshness of the form and its contrast
with the classical ornamentation of Art Nouveau had already led designers in
other fields to experiment with the style – including graphic art, interior
design, jewelry, textiles, and many other artifacts of everyday use.
In its adoption in architecture, Art
Nouveau architects established the free form and honesty in the use of
materials as the two major principles of design, and though the movement later
gave way to the modern movement, these principles continued to be a part of the
new theories of architectural design.
The free form of building was a major break
from the traditional architecture. The new type of buildings had complex
requirements for organization of functional spaces, and it was getting more
& more difficult to manage these requirements in the classical symmetrical
formats. Architecture thus was slowly coming of age, in trying to address the
issues of functional organization and structural systems.
The new building materials like steel &
concrete were capable of free-flowing & slender forms and they were now
being creatively used in many elements of the structure. The steel &
concrete were also capable of longer spans, and coupled with the large panels
of glass now available with the new technology, a dramatic change in the
appearance of the building was now possible.
But the inspiration from nature remained
largely on surface, and the functional organization of building still remained
subservient to the appearance of the building. A notable example of this can be
found in design of an opera house, in which the architect argued that it was
not possible to design the building so as to have the view of stage from every
seat in the auditorium. Some people, he added loftily, will have to be content to
listen to the music alone. An argument like this would put an architect out of
work today, but was accepted at the time as aesthetics was clearly considered
the more important aspect of the design than function.
On the philosophical front, ‘Art Nouveau’
as a movement was neutral about the social impact of the industrial revolution
and the debate of industrial processes verses traditional craft traditions. It
welcomed the new materials and manufacturing processes and went on to design
with their help. A major element of the style was use of curvilinear metal
forms with irregularly shaped glass, both of which was possible only because of
the new industrial processes, and gave sculptural qualities to architecture. In
fact, in many cases, the cost of the projects increased to a great extent due
to the curvilinear forms, which was one of the major reasons for its
discontinuation in architecture after the first world war, when the economy of
many European countries had been suffered because of the war.
There are many notable architects from this
period, but for our purpose the works by Victor Horta, Hector Guimard and Antoni Gaudi would be most illustrative.
Of these, the Belgian Architect Victor
Horta is credited as the first architect to introduce 'Art Nouveau' to
architecture. Horta was inspired by the free-flowing and curvilinear
compositions of the Art Nouveau, and used this influence for the first time in
his design of Tassel House. The design is done with a open plan floor layout
and incorporated interior iron structure with curvilinear floral forms. Both of
these features were path-breaking innovations for the design of a house at the
time. He was also conscious of the context of the house and concealed his
ornate and elaborate designs behind a stone façade to harmonize the building
with its surrounding of rigid stone masonry houses.
However, the flamboyant style of detailing
of Art Nouveau was no longer affordable in the aftermath of the first world
war. Horta had already began experimenting for a more simpler style of design,
and his post-war work is based on the simplified geometrical patterns. But
Horta continued his use of rational floor plans, and application of the latest
developments in building technology and building services engineering.
In France, the entrance to the Paris Metro,
designed by Hector Guimard, still remains one of the most outstanding examples of Art Nouveau. This was
based on the theories of Viollet-le-Duc about the free form and honesty in the
use of materials. Through this design, Guimard also wanted to standardize the
components, and thus could be called a precursor of industrial standardization.
His major breakthrough as an architect came in with his design of Castel Beranger,
an apartment building that he designed for Mme. Fournier. It is a classic
example of how the industrial arts could be combined with architecture, but in
its essence, the elements of the exterior are a modified version of classical
stone detailing.
Influenced by Victor Horta’s work, Guimard made
many experiments in space & volume in his later projects, and employed
structural innovations in his design, like the acoustical design with use of
structural frame for the roof of the concert hall Humbert-de-Roman. He used
abstract forms of plants and organic matter and created flexible mouldings which
gave a sense of movement even though they are made in heavy stone masonry. He
also created abstract patterns for stained glass, ceramic panels and wrought iron,
in many of his buildings, and created custom-built interior design for his
projects including wallpaper & fabric.
Antoni Gaudi’s work, which includes the
world famous Sagrada Familia and many other projects like Casa Mila, and CasaBatllo, provides another version of the Art Nouveau architecture. Gaudi used
the natural forms and the curvilinear flamboyance of the Art Nouveau in stone
& concrete. Gaudi was also inspired by the oriental arts, and the
philosophy of Viollet-le-Duc, but went on to develop his own version of
architecture through organic form from nature.
But Gaudi’s style of architecture was more
in tune with the ‘Romanticism’ which criticized harsh nature of the
industrialization and called for a return to the cultural roots of the society.
Thus the Catalan culture associated with Gothic architecture is a major
inspiration for Gaudi’s architecture, though he also integrated the principles
of design of ‘Art Nouveau’.
Another important contribution by Gaudí was
in the field of structural design. He used scale models to experiment and used catenary
curves and many innovative structural solutions in construction. These forms
were most suitable for cheap materials like brick. In the construction of Sagrada
Família, Gaudí used a complex form of columns inclined to resist better the
angular load of the hyperboloid roof vaults, eliminating the need for
buttresses. The hyperboloid roof vaults also allowed for voids in the design of
the roof structure, which Gaudí used to provide light in the interior. In this
way he used the structural logic of his times in combination with the form of
the traditional Gothic architecture.
Summary
The ‘Art nouveau’ was basically a movement
in art, but when it was translated in architecture, its practitioners established
many principles of architectural design, which were later embraced by the
modern movement in architecture. The most important among these principles
were: the free form, functional organization of structure incorporating the
structural aspects & building services and honesty in the use of materials.
However, as a style, it related only to the external façade of the buildings,
and its stylistic detailing made the construction very expensive. Both these
factors were responsible for its discontinuation after the first world war.
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